Original Article

Mineral composition of commonly consumed ethnic foods in Europe

Santosh Khokhar1*, Sara D. Garduño-Diaz1, Luisa Marletta2, Danit R. Shahar3, Jane D. Ireland4, Martine Jansen-van der Vliet5 and Stefaan de Henauw6

1School of Food Science and Nutrition, University of Leeds, Leeds, UK; 2National Institute for Research on Food and Nutrition, Rome, Italy; 3The S. Daniel Abraham International Centre for Health and Nutrition, Department of Epidemiology and Health Services Evaluation, Faculty of Health Sciences, Ben-Gurion University of the Negev Beer-Sheva, Israel; 4French Food Safety Agency (AFSSA), Maisons-Alfort, France; 5National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM)/Centre for Nutrition and Health, Bilthoven, The Netherlands; 6Department of Public Health, Ghent University, UZ Blok, Ghent, Belgium

Abstract

Background: Ethnic foods are an integral part of food consumption in Europe contributing towards the overall nutrient intake of the population. Food composition data on these foods are crucial for assessing nutrient intake, providing dietary advice and preventing diseases.

Objective: To analyse selected minerals in authentic and modified ethnic foods commonly consumed in seven EU member states and Israel.

Design: A list of ethnic foods commonly consumed in selected European countries was generated, primary samples collected and composite sample prepared for each food, which were analysed for dietary minerals at accredited laboratories. Methods for sampling, analysis, data scrutiny and documentation were based on harmonised procedures.

Results: New data on 128 ethnic foods were generated for inclusion in the national databases of seven EU countries and Israel within the European Food Information Resource (EuroFIR), an EU Network of Excellence. The Na, K, Ca, P, Mg, Mn, Cl, Fe, Cu, Zn, Se and I contents of 39 foods is presented for the first time in this study.

Conclusion: The data will serve as an important tool in future national and international food consumption surveys, to target provision of dietary advice, facilitate implementation of policies and inform policymakers, health workers, food industry and researchers.

Keywords: immigrant foods; ethnic foods; food composition data; micronutrients; minerals; analysis

Received: 28 February 2012; Revised: 15 May 2012; Accepted: 11 June 2012; Published: 3 July 2012

Food & Nutrition Research 2012. © 2012 Santosh Khokhar et al. This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution-Noncommercial 3.0 Unported License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/), permitting all non-commercial use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Citation: Food & Nutrition Research 2012. 56: 17665 - http://dx.doi.org/10.3402/fnr.v56i0.17665

 

Diet-related chronic diseases are responsible for two thirds of all deaths in the world (1) and it has been hypothesised that this might be due to intra-uterine programming linked to early micronutrient deficiencies. Furthermore, dietary intake of micronutrients is of public health concern due to the consequences of their deficiency in the diet and severe micronutrient-malnutrition (2). Dietary inadequacy of key minerals compared to D-A-CH (Germany, Austria and Switzerland) recommendations (3) have been reported for the European population, in particular lower intakes of Ca, Mg, Fe and I in female adolescents; lower intakes of Ca, Mg and Fe (women only) in adults and the elderly and lower iron intakes in girls (10–14 years age) (4). Calcium (Ca) and iron (Fe) are of greater concern due to difficulties in meeting increased requirements at certain stages in life, such as during pregnancy. Recent studies on the increased intakes of calcium, magnesium and potassium suggest that these are protective against unfavourable increases in serum lipid concentration (5), blood pressure (6, 7) and, therefore, the risk of coronary heart diseases (CHD) (8–10) which is the major cause of death worldwide, especially in developed countries (11).

Although ethnic foods are widely consumed in Europe, there is limited data on their composition. This makes it difficult to accurately estimate the nutrient intakes of the general population and, especially, of ethnic groups and migrants who are known to have higher incidences of nutrition-related problems. A cross-sectional study of black, Hispanic, and white men in Boston, USA demonstrated that the racial/ethnic heterogeneity affected bone mass and density through variations in body composition, diet, and socio-demographic factors (12).

Migrants also have higher rates of mortality and morbidity due to nutrition-related diseases when compared with the mainstream host population (13), as well as to the populations of their native country (14) which necessitates reliable data on ethnic diets. The objective of this study was, therefore, to analyse selected minerals in authentic1 and modified2 ethnic foods commonly consumed in seven EU member states and Israel; this was one of the objectives of the Ethnic Food Work Package within the EU's Sixth Framework Programme European Food Information Resource (EuroFIR) project. The most popular ethnic cuisines in European countries were identified as South Asian (for the UK), North African (France and Italy), Turkish and Pakistani (Denmark), Congolese (Belgium), Romanian (Italy), Mediterranean and Ethiopian (Israel), Latin American (Spain and Italy), Surinamese (The Netherlands) and Asian (Italy and Spain). The macronutrient composition of these foods has already been published (15).

Materials and methods

Prioritisation of commonly consumed ethnic foods

A list of ethnic foods commonly consumed in Belgium, Denmark, France, Israel, Italy, Spain, The Netherlands and the UK was generated and prioritised to ensure the data was representative according to criteria reported by Khokhar et al. (16). Factors considered in the prioritisation of foods included: the size and significance of ethnic populations in the partner countries; the records of foods in food consumption, national diet and nutrition surveys; the size of the national food industry; market retail share; sales from restaurants and takeaways, and diet-related risk factors in ethnic populations. The methods of sampling, analyses, data scrutiny and documentation were based on the harmonised procedures reported by Khokhar et al. (16). A total of 39 foods were analysed for minerals (Table 1).


Table 1.  Description of selected ethnic foods commonly consumed in seven European countries and Israel
Cuisine type and food name Number and source of samplesa Description
France: North African (Maghreb); Strasbourg area
Modified ethnic foodsb
  Brik pastry sheet, baked 3 samples, supermarkets and grocery stores Pastry sheet, baked
  Harissa sauce 3 samples, supermarkets and grocery stores Spicy sauce/paste
  Buttermilk 3 samples, supermarkets and grocery stores Fluid, cultured, low fat
  Frik, dry 2 samples, supermarkets and grocery stores Roasted crushed immature hard wheat, dry
  Molokhia sauce 1 sample, supermarkets and grocery stores Sauce made with dried Tossa Jute (Corchorus olitorius L.) leaves powder
Israel: Mediterranean and Ethiopian; Beer-Sheva, Tel-Aviv and Haifa
Modified ethnic foods
  Falafel 12 samples, restaurants Fried chick peas
  Commercial soya patty 10 samples, supermarkets and grocery stores Commercial vegetarian patty
  Industrialised hummus 10 samples, supermarkets and grocery stores Mashed chick peas
Authentic ethnic foodsc
  Dark bread 10 samples, homemade Common subsidize bread
  Injera 10 samples, homemade Ethiopian pita
Spain: Latin American and Asian; Barcelona
Modified ethnic foods
  Spring roll 8 samples, supermarkets and restaurants Vegetable filled roll
  Rice 3 delight 11 samples, supermarkets and restaurants Cooked rice with peas, ham, shrimp, carrots and egg
  Guacamole 3 samples, supermarkets and restaurants Avocado puree
  Mexican salsa 5 samples, supermarkets and restaurants Tomato and chilli salsa
Authentic ethnic foods
  Ceviche 5 samples, homemade Raw marinated fish or seafood in lemon juice
Denmark: Middle Eastern; Copenhagen
Modified ethnic foods
  Dürüm rolls 4 samples, fast-food restaurants and takeaways Flat bread with salad and strips of meat
  Pita sandwich with kebab 4 samples, fast-food restaurants and takeaways Pita bread with grilled kebab meat (normally lamb or beef) and salad
  Sandwich with kebab 4 samples, fast-food restaurants and takeaways Various types of bread with kebab and salad [typically lamb or beef]
  Sandwich with falafel 4 samples, fast-food restaurants and takeaways Various types of bread with falafel and salad
  Kebab mix 4 samples, fast-food restaurants and takeaways A mix of kebab, chips, salad and dressing
Italy: Asian, Latin American, Mediterranean and Romanian; Rome and Milan
Modified ethnic foods
  Cantonese rice 5 samples, supermarkets and restaurants Cooked rice with peas, vegetables, ham and egg
  nachos 9 samples, supermarkets and restaurants Fried corn tortilla chips
  falafel 6 samples, supermarkets and restaurants Broad bean and chickpea balls
  kebab 10 supermarkets and restaurants ‘Rotating meat’ lamb or beef grilled
Authentic ethnic foods
  Sarmale 4 samples, homemade Cooked rolls of cabbage leaves with rice and meat
Netherlands: Surinamese; Zeist and The Hague
Authentic ethnic foods
  Salted beef 3 samples, ethnic food store Salt cured beef, boiled
  Yellow split peas 1 sample, ethnic food store Legumes, husked and split in half, boiled
  Pomtayer 1 sample, ethnic food store Roots of the tayer plant (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), prepared without fat
  Tayer leaves 3 samples, market Large green leaves of the tayer plant (Xanthosoma sagittifolium), prepared without fat
Belgium: Congolese; Brussels
Authentic ethnic foods
  Biteku-teku 6 samples, ethnic food store Amaranthus leaves
  Saka-saka 11 samples, ethnic food store Cassava leaves
  Chikwangue 5 samples, ethnic food store Fermented cassava loaf
  Mbinzo worms 5 samples, ethnic food store Small black worms
  Mkayabo 7 samples, ethnic food store Dried and salted cod
UK: South Asian; London, Leeds and Birmingham
Modified ethnic foods
  Chicken bhuna 10 samples, supermarkets, restaurants and takeaway Medium spiced curry with tomato and onion, garlic and fresh coriander
  Chicken rogan josh 12 samples, supermarkets Chicken with a chilli, tomato and onion sauce
  Aloo bombay 6 samples, supermarkets Chunks of potato in a spicy, tomato and onion sauce
Authentic ethnic foods
  Rasmalai 9 samples, homemade and ethnic food stores Milky dessert made with specialised milk powder, milk cream and cardamom
  Lamb kebab 6 samples, homemade and ethnic food store Patties made with spiced minced lamb
aNumber of primary samples was based on the availability of a brand. EuroFIR criteria were used to collect commonly consumed foods which are important in the diet.
bA commercially-modified version of food as prepared in an immigrant country to suit the taste and preference of host country.
cA food from countries other than the home market contribution to a different food culture than the traditional cuisine of the host country. Food may be adapted by combining local and imported ingredients and is prepared at home.

Sample collection and preparation

For the analysis of modified ethnic foods, primary samples were collected from various sources (supermarkets, takeaways, restaurants and ethnic food stores) with sample numbers ranging from 1 to 12 for each food. Authentic ethnic foods (up to 11 primary samples) were collected from households where they were prepared by members of relevant ethnic groups, and collected from different street market stalls, ethnic restaurants and specialist ethnic shops. Composite3 samples for each selected food were analysed for dietary minerals.

Mineral analyses

The sodium (Na), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), phosphorus (P), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), chloride (Cl), iron (Fe), copper (Cu), zinc (Zn) selenium (Se) and iodine (I) contents of the selected foods were determined using standardised methods based on CEN (European Committee for Standardisation) methods and/or UKAS-accredited methods at selected laboratories. These laboratories were accredited (ISO-17025), routinely participated in proficiency testing schemes (FAPAS) and complied with the Joint Code of Practice for Quality Assurance in Research. Appropriate guidelines (e.g. the use of appropriate equipment such as plastic, glass, stainless steel, rubber gloves, sodium-free detergents and distilled water for rinsing equipment) including those for preventing contamination of dietary samples with Fe, Zn or Cu, were strictly adhered to during sample preparation. The analytical methods are presented in Table 2.


Table 2.  List of analytical methods for dietary minerals analysis
Dietary mineral Methods and references
Sodium ICP-OES; ICP-AES; AES (A 08/09/77; PNTA0016), EAS; flame – atomic absorption spectroscopy after ashing (AOAC 965.09)
Potassium ICP-OES; AES (A 08/09/77; PNTA0016), EAS; flame – atomic absorption spectroscopy (AOAC 965.09)
Calcium ICP-OES; ICP-AES; SAA AAS (A 08/09/77), flame – atomic absorption spectroscopy (AOAC 965.09; PNTA0016)
Phosphorus ICP-OES; ICP-AES; Colorimetric (A 08/09/77), spectrometric (PNTQ1025), UV absorption (AOAC 970.39), atomic absorption
Magnesium ICP-OES; AAS (A 08/09/77), flame – atomic absorption spectroscopy (AOAC 965.09; PNTA0016)
Manganese Graphite furnace – atomic absorption spectroscopy after microwave digestion (BS 14084)
Chloride Potentiometry (NF ISO 5943, NF ISO 5725, NFV 05116, NFV04289, NF EN ISO 5810, ISO 1841-2, NF ISO 5943 mod)
Iron ICP-OES; ICP-AES; AAS (Dir 78/993), ICP-MS; flame – atomic absorption spectroscopy (AOAC 965.09), graphite furnace AAS (PNTA0017)
Copper ICP-OES; ICP-MS; AAS; graphite furnace AAS (PNTA0017)
Zinc ICP-OES; ICP-AES; AAS (Dir 78/933/NF V76-113), ICP-MS; flame – atomic absorption spectroscopy (AOAC 965.09; PNTA0016)
Selenium Hydride (PNTA0059), fluorescence; AAS; ICP-MS; graphite furnace – atomic absorption spectroscopy after microwave digestion (BS 14627)
Iodine Colorimetric; bromation/titrimetry (AOAC 935.14)

Results

The mineral content of the selected foods was determined and reported per 100 g edible portion (Table 3). The most abundant minerals were Na, K, Ca, Mg, Fe, P and Cl, with Zn being present in small amounts. Overall, there were large variations in the mineral contents of the foods analysed, ranging from 4 mg (frik) to 3,207 mg (salted beef) for Na; 23 mg (Cantonese rice) to 710 mg (harissa sauce) for K; 5 mg (sarmale) to 579 mg (biteku-teku) for Ca; 6 mg (chikwangue) to 125 mg (biteku-teku) for Mg; 7 mg (meloukhia sauce) to 296 mg (kebab) for P; 89 mg (frik) to 2,712 mg (brik) for Cl; 0.4 mg (mkayabo and chikwangue) to 17.1 mg (injera) for Fe; <0.04 mg (salted beef, chikwangue and mbinzo worms) to 0.90 mg (falafel) for Cu; 0.1 mg (Cantonese rice, sarmale and chikwangue) to 6.4 mg (salted beef) for Zn; <1 mg (brik, harissa sauce and meloukhia sauce) to 11.2 mg (buttermilk) for Mn; 0 µg (falafel) to 23 µg (injera) for Se; and from <10 µg (frik and meloukhia sauce) to 44 µg (harissa sauce) for I. Such variation could be due to several factors, such as the processing and agronomic/cultivation conditions, but are also thought to involve different ingredients in composite foods and recipes; for example, falafel examined in Israel and Italy showed different Na contents (853 mg versus 677, respectively). Lack of published mineral composition data in these ethnic foods precluded comparison of the data with that from other studies. However, the present data were determined at accredited laboratories and certified reference materials (CRMs) were used to ensure the validity and reliability of results obtained.


Table 3.  Mineral composition of authentic and modified ethnic foods (per 100 g edible portion)
Na K Ca Mg P Fe Cu Zn Cl Mn Se I
Country/Organisationa Food name mg µg
France/AFSSA Brik pastry sheet, baked 1672 175 110 24 97 1.1 <1 <1.0 2712 <1 <5 18
Harissa sauce 1122 710 78 47 63 3.1 <1 <1.0 1915 <1 <5 44
Buttermilk 50 159 118 12 90 1.0 <1 1 139 11.2 <5 18
Frik, dry 4.2 499 52 114 258 5.2 <1 3.6 89 3.6 <5 <10
Meloukhia sauce 378 179 82 37 7 1.9 <1 <1.0 764 <1 <5 <10
Israel/BGU Falafel 853 340 56 53 157 2.3 0.38 1.4 – – <18 –
Dark bread 489 156 123 36 119 2.7 0.17 1.0 – – <18 –
Commercial soy patty 548 255 133 46 172 3.5 0.24 2.3 – – <18 –
Injera 12 249 90 102 200 17.1 0.47 2.0 – – 23 –
Industrialised hummus 472 205 45 71 164 1.9 0.35 1.4 – – <18 –
Spain/CESNID Spring roll 516 162 41 15 143 0.9 0.10 0.5 – – <5 –
Rice 3 delight 410 82 22 12 202 0.7 0.10 0.6 – – <5 –
Guacamole 644 147 58 13 117 0.5 0.10 <0.5 – – <5 –
Mexican salsa 663 294 27 17 73 0.6 0.10 <0.5 – – <5 –
Ceviche 491 170 28 26 204 1.5 0.10 0.5 – – 12 –
Denmark/DTU Dürüm Rolls 532 286 19 21 134 1.3 – 2.6 – – – –
Pita sandwich with kebab 365 231 25 18 102 1.1 – 1.7 – – – –
Sandwich with kebab 443 193 47 17 93 1.1 – 1.6 – – – –
Sandwich with falafel 382 236 45 29 96 1.1 – 0.7 – – – –
Kebab mix 545 472 17 27 154 1.5 – 2.1 – – – –
Italy/INRAN Cantonese rice 552 23 16 78 121 0.5 0.66 0.1 1151 – 1 –
Nachos 462 201 47 62 144 1.2 0.10 1.2 1070 – 1 –
Falafel 677 355 45 41 163 2.5 0.90 0.2 1016 – 0 –
Kebab 849 531 22 32 296 1.6 0.12 3.8 1660 – 2 –
Sarmale 707 27 5 22 10 0.5 0.93 0.1 1252 – 1 –
The Netherlands/RIVM Salted meat 3207 40 15 16 135 1.6 <0.04 6.4 – – – –
Tayer leaves 122 541 354 39 61 1.0 0.10 1.3 – – – –
Pomtayer 17 606 51 49 105 1.0 0.30 0.5b – – – –
Yellow split peas 6 309 20 31 140 1.1 0.11 0.9 – – – –
Belgium/UGhent Mkayabo 2533 64 190 40 – 0.4 0.04 3.7 – – – –
Saka-saka <5 168 153 47 – 2.9 0.05 1.2 – – – –
Chikwangue <5 75 8 6 – 0.4 <0.04 0.1 – – – –
Mbinzo worms 13 121 56 43 – 3.5 <0.04 3.7 – – – –
Biteku-teku <5 131 579 125 – 1.3 0.04 0.6 – – – –
UK/UL Chicken bhuna 340 255 27 20 90 0.7 0.06 0.5 – – 9 –
Lamb kebab 528 410 30 32 175 2.5 0.15 3.2 – – 19 –
Aloo bombay 298 284 28 18 38 0.8 0.06 0.3 – – – –
Rasmalai 54 186 206 16 149 0.6 <0.06 0.9 – – – –
Chicken rogan josh 316 262 33 20 81 0.9 0.06 0.5 – – 12 –
–, Implies nutrient not prioritised for analysis because the selected food was not expected to contain considerable amount of this nutrient and due to insufficient funding.
aUniversity or Research Institute participated in the study.
bValue of raw pomtayer (as reported value from laboratory was judged to be too high to be accurate this value was derived from USDA data 2008).

Discussion

Macro- and micronutrient food composition data of commonly consumed ethnic foods in seven EU countries and Israel have been generated for the first time for inclusion in national food composition databases including new data on the dietary mineral presented in this paper. Some minerals considered of greater dietary significance including Na, Ca, Fe and Se ranged widely in these ethnic foods.

Sodium

The sodium content of mkayabo (dried and salted cod) and salted meat would be considered high because the amount of Na in 100 g edible portion (mkayabo 2.5 g, salted meat 3.2 g) in these foods exceeds the European recommendation (17) of <1.5 g/day (equivalent to 3.8 g of salt). Higher dietary intakes of Na exceeded the recommendation for both genders across 23 European countries as reported by Elmadfa (4). Furthermore, prolonged consumption of such foods could be an issue of concern since Na intake above the recommended value has been associated with high blood pressure and stiffening of arterial walls and, therefore, is a risk factor for CHD, which is a major cause of death in Europe (6, 18–21). Levels of Na can, however, be very variable due to other sodium-containing compounds such as mono-sodium glutamate (MSG) used in cooking or added by manufacturers.

Potassium

An adequate intake of potassium has been found to prevent high blood pressure and reduce the risk of stroke (22, 23). The low potassium content of the foods analysed may be considered critical in view of the UK recommendation of 3.5 mg/day (24). Thus, individuals who regularly consume these foods need to increase their daily intake of fruits and vegetables in order to meet their potassium needs.

Calcium

Calcium is essential for bone development and prevention of osteoporosis (11, 17), and may also reduce the absorption of dietary fat thereby lowering serum total cholesterol and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol concentrations (8). The calcium content of the foods analysed in this study ranged widely between 5 mg (sarmale) and 579 mg (biteku-teku) per 100 g edible portion. Furthermore, the amount of calcium actually absorbed is dependent on individual vitamin D status and on the presence of binding substances, such as uronic acid, phytate and oxalate, in the food (25); in milk products its bioavailability is relatively higher.

Iron

According to a WHO report, over 2 million people in developed and developing countries have iron deficiency anaemia which leads to loss of productivity (26). Anaemia has been shown to be strongly linked to maternal mortality and premature child birth (27). In addition, iron deficiency, which is prevalent in ethnic groups, has also been reported in European countries (28). The reported prevalence ranged from 2.5 to 32% (29–32). Its bioavailability is low and is affected by dietary factors which could increase (presence of meat or fish or organic acids such as ascorbic acid, citric acid, lactic acid) or inhibit its availability (phytate, calcium, tannins, fibre, polyphenols in tea, coffee, bran), as well as the iron status of individuals (33); haem iron found only in meat and fish has a relatively high bioavailability (15–25%) (34). These data emphasise the need for appropriate dietary advice to be given to the population and especially to ethnic groups who tend to consume these food regularly and also have a higher incidence of anaemia (35, 36).

Selenium

Several functional roles of Se have been reported, including enzyme activity, decreasing the risk of CHD through its antioxidant effect (17, 37) and possibly offering protection against prostate cancer (38). Low intakes of Se in European countries especially in the UK have been reported (39) and increased consumption in the diet is encouraged. WHO recommends Se intakes of 40 µg/day for men and 30 µg/day for women (40). For Europe, the recommendation is 55 µg per day for both genders (41). Injera, an ethnic food from Israel, (after Israel) contained a great amount of Se (23 µg) and so may be considered as an excellent source of this mineral.

These data highlight potential health benefits of foods such as injera which contain higher amount of Fe than that of meat products and also high levels of selenium; however, there were several foods which were generally low in minerals presenting some concerns in populations regularly consuming these foods. The adequacy of intake must also take account of both the specific portion size of the food and its frequency of consumption in the daily diet, and not of the mineral contents in isolation. It is also important to underline that there are many factors, both dietary and physiological, that may influence mineral bioavailability.

There are substantial differences in the preparation of meals, eating habits, nutritional composition of the diets of migrants (including those of South Asian and black African-Caribbean origin) and Caucasians living in the UK and other European countries. Greater in-depth knowledge of these differences allied to reliable food composition data could help to explain both macronutrient and micronutrient intakes of these groups. For example, intakes of Ca and haem Fe have been found to be lower for South Asian children than for white European children. Similarly, African-Caribbean children have also been found to present lower intakes of Ca (42). Additionally, low intakes of iron among Moroccan and Turkish women have been found by their low iron status; prevalence of low iron status was highest among Turkish women (43). The diets of migrants showed both positive (macronutrients) and negative (micronutrients) differences in comparison with the mainstream European diets (43).

Conclusions

Ethnic foods are increasingly becoming popular in Europe and therefore will impact upon the overall nutrient intake of the population. As such, reliable information on their mineral content is crucial for assessing the intakes of the population and the provision of dietary advice for preventing the risk of deficiency and diet-related disease. These new food composition data on 39 prioritised ethnic foods (commercial and homemade) consumed by both the mainstream and ethnic population in Europe has been generated using harmonised methods, scrutinised for methodological and analytical errors and is made available through EuroFIR and national compilers for inclusion in the national databases. The new data have been documented for inclusion in national food composition databases in Belgium, Denmark, France, Italy, Spain, the Netherlands, UK and Israel, and is also available from EuroFIR.4 In addition to the provision of dietary advice to both mainstream and ethnic populations, the validated data presented in the current study will serve as an important tool in future national and international food consumption surveys, inform policymakers, clinicians, dieticians, health professionals, food industry and epidemiological research.

Acknowledgements

This work was completed on behalf of the EuroFIR Network of Excellence Consortium and funded under the EU FP6 ‘Food Quality and Safety Programme’ (Contract No. FP6-513944). Additional financial support from the Food Standards Agency, UK, for the analysis of ethnic foods from the UK is also gratefully acknowledged.

Conflict of interest and funding

There was no conflict of interest for any of the authors.

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*Santosh Khokhar
School of Food Science and Nutrition
University of Leeds
Leeds LS2 9JT
UK
Tel: +44(0) 113 343 2975
Fax: +44(0)113 343 2982
Email: s.khokhar@food.leeds.ac.uk

Footnotes

1Authentic ethnic food: ‘A food from countries other than the home market contribution to a different food culture than the traditional cuisine of the host country. Food may be adapted by combining local and imported ingredients and is prepared at home’ (15).

2Modified ethnic food: ‘A commercially-modified version of food as prepared in an immigrant country to suit the taste and preference of host country’ (15).

3Primary samples were mixed to make a composite sample of approximately 2 kg and were stored at appropriate conditions. Details of sampling have been published (15, 16).

4http://www.eurofir.net